E-mail:
  keith.kirby@bnc.oxon.org

Tel  +44 (0)1865 275000

Last Modified: November 2012

I have been a woodland ecologist with the government conservation service, the Nature Conservancy Council (1979-1991) and successor bodies, English Nature (1991-2006) and Natural England (2006-2012).

Recent Activity (January to April 2013).

The winter is a time for reflection and consolidation; an excuse not to go out in the freezing cold.

A conference on ecological history provided an opportunity to compare and contrast how the general trends in the development of the English landscape were reflected in the specific example of Wytham Woods: from evidence of forest clearance and shifts in major tree species composition; through the medieval period of coppice and wood-pasture management; through to more recent changes due to deer, plantation forestry and minimum intervention approaches.

Examples of coniferous afforestation of open ground in Wytham and in the Lake District.

Understanding the profound influence of history is essential in deciding on conservation priorities for the future. The structure and composition of a natural landscape are of interest in their own right, but are not necessarily that relevant to current and future nature conservation in the highly-modified cultural landscapes that characterise much of north-west Europe. Instead we can and must choose what we want to conserve and how that is to be done. This may reflect the past, but may also mean choosing to manage land in totally new ways because we believe this will be better for wildlife.

Recent history also featured in consideration of forest conservation since 1949; specifically the part played bythe Chief Scientist Team lead by Derek Ratcliffe of the Nature Conservancy Council (NCC). This was a difficult period during which large areas of valuable semi-natural woodland (as well as other habitats) were lost as forestry and agriculture were intensified following the Second World War. At times and places the arguments were very bitter indeed, but none the less, from them eventually emerged much consensus on woodland creation and management between the conservation and forestry sectors. In Wales the Forestry Commission and Countryside Council for Wales (NCC’s successor) have now been merged into one body; discussion on the future of FC and Natural England is on-going. Whatever institutional landscape emerges, however, there will still be a need for the hard ecological understanding of land-use change shown by Derek and his colleagues.

Kirby, K J (2012) A view from the past to the future. In Historical environmental variations in conservation and natural resource management, edited by J A Wiens, G D Hayward, H D Safford, C M Giffen, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp281-288.

Kirby, K.J. & Baker, A. (2013) The dynamics of pre-Neolithic landscapes and their relevance to modern conservation. In Trees, forested landscapes and grazing animals, edited by I.D. Rotherham, Earthscan, Routledge, Abingdon, pp87-98.

Kirby K J (in press) Battling forestry and building consensus: woodland conservation post-1949. In: Nature’s Conscience – The Life and Legacy of Derek Ratcliffe (eds D.B.A. Thompson, H.H. Birks & H.J.B. Birks).

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Previous Activities

 

May - Dec 2012

Over the summer 70 Dawkins plots were recorded in Wytham to complete the fourth set of observations since they were established in 1974. One of the more obvious changes in the appearance of the Woods over the last ten years has been the resurgence of regeneration, particularly ash saplings. More generally ash has been gaining ground in the Woods and is now the most abundant tree in the Woods.

It was therefore very worrying to learn that ash dieback has become established in the wild in Britain, which led to the production of an initial assessment of the conservation implications, set out in the pdf document Potential Conservation Implications of Ash Dieback.

There will be major consequences for our woodland if it follows the same course as on the Continent. For example ashwoods are some of the richest sites for woodland flowers; old ash trees in hedges are important for lichens on their bark and deadwood beetles in their rotting hearts.

Ways of managing woods with the disease need to be developed, now that it appears unlikely it can be contained. However this should be a measured response - there is no need for panic felling of mature ash.

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Jan - Apr 2012

Impact of nitrogen on the woodland flora

There has been increased deposition of nitrogen from the atmosphere over recent decades and in some habitats this is having clear effects on the vegetation. In general more 'competitive', often generalist, species tend to increase and the more specialist plants for the habitat decline. So for example increasing nitrogen levels are thought to encourage species such as goosegrass Galium aparine and cow parsley Anthriscus sylvestris over traditional woodland flowers such as bluebells Hyacinthoides non-scripta and primroses Primula vulgaris (shown here).

Kris Verheyen from Ghent University therefore brought together long-term survey data, including from the vegetation plots at Wytham Woods, to try to see if there was a general trend in increasing eutrophication in semi-natural woodland. Although no directional change in species richness occurred, there was considerable floristic turnover in the understorey plant community and species. There was an overall composition shift towards more shade tolerant and nutrient demanding species. However, atmospheric nitrogen deposition was not important in explaining the observed eutrophication signal. This signal seemed mainly related to a shift towards a denser canopy cover and a changed canopy species composition with a higher share of species with more easily decomposed litter.

The study demonstrates that we should be cautious when drawing conclusions about the impact of atmospheric nitrogen deposition based on the interpretation of plant community shifts in single sites or regions due to other, concurrent ecological changes. However although the effects of chronically increased nitrogen deposition on the forest plant communities are apparently obscured by the effects of canopy changes, the accumulated nitrogen might still have a significant impact. More research is needed to assess whether this nutrient time bomb will indeed explode when canopies open up again.

Verheyen, K., Baeten, L., De Frenne, P., Bernhard-Romermann, M, Brunet, J., Cornelis, J., Decoq, G., Dierschke, H, Eriksson, O., Hedl, R., Heinken, T., Hermy, M., Hommel, P., Kirby, K.J., Naaf, T., Peterken, G.F., Petrik, P., Pfadenhauer, J., Van Calster, H., Walther, G-R., Wulf, M. & Verstraeten, G. (2012). Driving factors behind the eutrophication signal in understorey plant communities of deciduous temperate forests. Journal of Ecology 100, 352-365.

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01928.x/abstract

Fast effects, slow recovery from deer browsing.

Deer at Wytham Woods had a major impact on the vegetation and structure of the woods between about 1980 and 1990, but thereafter increasing efforts were made to reduce their impact via management of the numbers. However even after the populations had been much reduced the vegetation did not seem much different – there was a lag in the recovery, although one of the key species, bramble, is now spreading back, as here in a Marley Wood glade.

It turns out this is quite a common phenomenon. Worldwide deer have become widespread throughout temperate regions over the last century. While culling is frequently used to reduce the ecological impacts of deer, the recovery of herbivore-disturbed vegetation is often a protracted process on the order of decades. Vegetation changes following deer population reduction may be slow because of the: (i) slow growth rate of plants relative to the amount of biomass consumed by herbivores; (ii) depletion of seed sources of deer-preferred plants; (iii) formation of alternate vegetation types under high deer browsing; (iv) preferential browsing of forage even under low deer densities; (v) variation in browse damage of deer-preferred species with plant community composition (e.g. associational resistance or susceptibility); (vi) suppression of trophic cascades; and (vii) changes in abiotic conditions associated with other ecological processes. Managers can accelerate recovery through different active management strategies that directly address the reasons behind slow recovery. However, first there needs to be acceptance of the need to manage the deer population, which involves wider societal acceptance. Recovery may hinge as much on bridging the communication gap between forest managers and wider society as on improving our ecological understanding of deer impacts and ecosystem recovery.

Tanentzap, A., Kirby, K.J. & Goldberg, E.A. 2012 Slow responses of ecosystems to reductions in wild ungulates and strategies for achieving recovery. Forest Ecology and Management 264, 159-166

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112711006074

April – December 2011

How much is a wood worth?

Woods and forests produce timber but they provide us with much more than just that. Some things may be deemed beyond price, a rare orchid, a breath-taking view, but even if we all agree that is the case (and some will not) there will be costs attached to maintaining the species or the view.

Resources are limited and individuals and governments need some indications - however vague - of the values that might be attached to the different goods and services that trees and woods provide. That is what the National Ecosystem Assessment has attempted to do.

Foresters should not find it a surprise as they have been struggling with how to account for non-market benefits since at least the the 1970s. This latest attempt is still inevitably incomplete, but provides a framework from which future payments for ecosystem services might be developed.

Quine, C.P., Cahalan, C., Hester, A., Humphrey, J., Kirby, K.J., & Moffat, A. (2011). National Ecosystem Assessment – Woodlands. http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/Resources/tabid/82/Default.aspx

More trees without the trouble

There is momentum building up around increasing the woodland creation rate up from its current 2,500 ha a year in England to something three to four tines that rate. Under the Biodiversity Action Plan a woodland expansion rate of about 5,000 ha a year is envisaged to buffer and expand around ancient woods, to create stepping stones and woodland corridors that might help woodland species spread through the landscape. The Woodland Trust has proposed that native woodland cover should be doubled.

From a different angle the Read report has called for a substantial increase in woodland creation to help with climate change mitigation and adaptatioin. A figure of 10,000 ha/yr is seen as an aspiration.

Such increases, however desirable in theory, will almost certainly involve at least local landscape transformations. There is the potential for damage to be done to historic features, treasured landscapes, valuable open habitats, as happened in the past. However with goodwill on all sides it should be possible to raise our tree and woodlamd cover without raising the storm of protest that greeted afforestation in the 1970s and1980s.

Kirby, K.J., Reid, C.M. & Green, R. 2011 More trees without the trouble. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 105, 295-301.

The Ancient Woodland Inventory – thirty years on.

Ancient woods are those that are believed to have been continuously wooded since at least 1600 AD In 1981 a project started to try to list ancient woods on a county-by-county basis across Britain. The result was the ‘ancient woodland inventory’ which has since become a standard reference document in forestry, planning and conservation work.

The Inventory is now maintained and operated as three separate inventories for England, Scotland and Wales by the relevant conservation agencies. The current version for England is available from Natural England as part of the MAGIC data-set (www.naturalengland.org.uk ).

Goldberg, E.A., Peterken, G.F. & Kirby, K.J. 2011. Origin and evolution of the Ancient Woodland Inventory. British Wildlife, 23, 90-96.

The National Vegetation Classification - twenty years on.

The NVC project was started in 1975 by the Nature Conservancy Council http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-4259. Nearly 2,800 samples from woodland across the country were collected (plus many others from other habitats) and these were clustered into 18 main woodland categories plus 7 types of scrub.

The first volume of the national vegetation classification (NVC) which covered woodland and scrub was published in 1991. Since then it has become the standard tool for describing British vegetation. It has its flaws, but has become a valuable tool for foresters and ecologists over the last 20 years. The notes in the accompanying pdf provide more detail of its use.

Woodland variation and the use of the National Vegetation Classification woodland section. Unpublished notes. K J Kirby

Earlier Activities

Progress on the condition of woodland Sites of Special Scientific Interest

Kirby, K.J., Jefferson, R., Larwood, J., Russell, D., Le Bas, B. & Wright, R. (2010) What has the SSSI improvement programme achieved for nature conservation in England? British Wildlife, 22, 16-25

Sites of Special Scientific Interest form the backbone of nature conservation protection in England. About 11% of all woodland, about 25% of the most important category (ancient semi-natural woods) are included within the series. However it had long been recognised that many of these sites were not in good condition: they were too shady, over-grazed, affected by pollution, or threatened by non-native invasive species, etc.

Consequently Natural England (formerly English Nature) has been working with major land-owners for some years to put in place the management or other measures that should improve the state of these woods (and also of other habitats within the SSSI series). Around Christmas the target was reached of 95% of SSSIs either in favourable condition or recovering (that is the appropriate actions to bring the sites into favourable condition were in place). The challenge for the next decade will be ensuring that recovery does continue and that more sites reach favourable condition.

More information on SSSIs and Condition Assessment:

Kirby, K J, Latham, J., Holl, K., Bryce, J., Corbett, P. & Watson, R. (2002). Objective setting and condition monitoring within woodland sites of special scientific interest. English Nature (Research Report 472). http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/R472

Natural England 2008. State of the Natural Environment. Natural England. http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/NE85

Williams, J. 2006. Common Standards Monitoring for Designated Sites: First Six Year Report. Joint Nature Conservation Committee. http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-3520

Do the England Biodiversity Strategy Climate Change Adaptation principles work for woodland ground flora?

Poster presentation by K J Kirby & E A Goldberg to British Ecological Society/Natural England conference, January 2011.

http://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/policy/climate_change_conference_2011.php

Climate change adaptation principles have been published as part of the England Biodiversity Strategy. We explored what these principles might mean using woodland ground flora as a test group of species. The ground flora forms a significant part of the variation in the botanical composition of British woods; and its characteristics are well-known. About half of the twenty-six principles (in italics below) have direct links to conservation practice at the site level.

Accept that change is inevitable.
Undertake vulnerability assessments of biodiversity and associated ecosystem goods and services.
Conserve existing biodiversity.
Conserve range and ecological variability of habitats and species.
Maintain existing networks.
Reduce sources of harm not linked to climate.
Create buffer zones around high quality habitats.

The impact of drift of pesticides and fertilizers from adjacent land can be reduced as here through the creation of a no-spray strip adjacent to the wood-edge.

Take prompt action to control spread of invasive species.
Aid gene flow.
Establish ecological networks through habitat restoration and creation.
Consider role of species translocation and ex-situ conservation.
Monitor actual impacts and research.
Respond to changing conservation priorities.

Smithers, R.J., Cowan, C., Harley, M., Hopkins, J.J., Pontier, H., Watts, O.. 2008. England Biodiversity Strategy: climate change adaptation principles, Defra, London.

From natural reserves to cultural landscapes delivering ecosystem services: woodland conservation in Britain since 1949.

Presentation at British Ecological Society 'Forests and Global Change' conference, Cambridge, March 2011.

http://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/meetings/current_future_meetings/2011_annual_symposium/index.php

A British state conservation service was first established in 1949. Since then its priorities have changed from the conservation of individual sites to whole landscapes; and from a prime focus on conserving 'natural' reserves to a recognition of the cultural nature of our landscapes and the range of ecosystem services that they deliver.

From 1949-1980 the priority was identifying representative woodland sites across the country as reserves and sites of special scientific interest. However many were destroyed or badly degraded because the protection available was weak. In the 1980s site protection legislation was substantially increased (and further strengthened in 2000) and has been largely effective at limiting further damage. From 1985 onward policies were introduced that gave more protection to ancient woodland outside the formally protected sites. The Biodiversity Action Plan (1994) led to more attention to restoration of damaged sites and creation of new woodland – large-scale action to improve the permeability of whole landscapes for species movement.

Woodland was the natural cover for much of Britain, but the impact of human activity on the extent, structure and composition of woodland, from the pre-historic period onward, has become increasingly appreciated. Woodland conservation is about conserving 'cultural landscapes'. Such sites and landscapes also deliver ecosystem services, particularly water management, carbon sequestration, erosion control and improve the quality of life: these are now promoted as justifications for putting resources into woodland conservation.

Kirby, K J (2003) Woodland conservation in privately-owned cultural landscapes: the English experience. Environmental Science and Policy, 6, 253-259.

Quine, C.P., Cahalan, C., Hester, A., Humphrey, J., Kirby, K.J., & Moffat, A. (2011). National Ecosystem Assessment – Woodlands. In press, Defra. http://uknea.unep-wcmc.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=UIQr0mgTWWU%3D&tabid=82

The woodland ground flora is not as peaceful and unchanging as it looks!

Jefferson, R.J. & Kirby, K.J. (2011) Boggarts, ants and poison: the shady natural history of Dog’s mercury. British Wildlife 22, 241-245.

Marrs, R.H. Le Duc, M.G., Smart, S.M., Kirby, K.J, Bunce, R.G.H. & Corney, P.M. 2011. Aliens or Natives: who are the ‘Thugs’ in British woods? Kew Bulletin 65, 1-11.

Bluebell woods in spring are one of the glories of the English countryside, but down under the trees the ground flora is a surprisingly dynamic world. Repeat surveys in woods across the country have shown gains and losses of species over time, even if exactly the same plots are revisited. This may be caused by changes in the shade cast by the trees and shrubs, the impacts of deer grazing, but there is also competition within the ground flora – some species such a bramble even being described as 'thugs' because of the strength of their impact on smaller species.

Long-term studies at Wytham Woods have illustrate some of the above effects. In 1974 a far-sighted forester, Colyear Dawkins, set up 163 permanent plots spread over the woods. Subsequent recordings (1991, 1999) showed the way that increased deer browsing shifted the ground flora from bramble to grasses as the dominant species over large areas. The deer population has now been reduced and the bramble is starting to come back.

Over the next two years we will be recording the plots again and expect to be able to quantify further this recovery in the ground flora.

Other work on the ground flora and changes in Wytham in particular:

Kirby, K J 2010. Effect of the shift from coppice to high forest in English Woods on the woodland flora. In Woodland cultures in time and space, editors E Saratsi, M Burgi, E Johann, K J Kirby, D Moreno, C Watkins, Embryo Publications, Athens, pp155-162.

Kirby, K.J., Smart, S.M., Black, H.I.J., Bunce, R.G.H.,Corney,P.M.and Smithers,R.J. (2005). Long term ecological change in British woodland (1971-2001). Peterborough: English Nature (Research Report 653).

Savill, P S, Perrins, C, Kirby, K J & Fisher, N (2010) Wytham Woods, Oxford’s Ecological Laboratory. Oxford University Press, Oxford. (Paperback version due out in summer 2011)

How do we decide whether large-scale, rewilding type projects are working?

Hughes, F.M.R, Stroh, P.A., Adams, W.M., Kirby, K.J., Mountford, O. & Warrington, S. In press. Monitoring and evaluating large-scale, ‘open-ended’ habitat creation projects: a journey rather than a destination. Journal of Nature Conservation.

There is increasing interest in large-scale approaches to conservation in Britain, including some, where the aim is not to dictate precisely what sorts of habitats and species should be present, but rather to allow nature to take its course. This latter approach is often referred to as 're-wilding'. This can present problems for those who are charged with 'monitoring the success' of the project – if you have not got a definite end-point how do you decide if your conservation efforts are worth-while?. Dr Francine Hughes (Anglia Ruskin University) is looking at how this problem might be addressed through the design of monitoring work at Wicken Fen (http://www.wicken.org.uk/).

Other work relevant to the re-wilding approach to conservation:

Naturalistic grazing and re-wilding in Britain: perspectives from the past and future direction. http://www.britishwildlife.com/classic_articles/British%20Wildlife%20Special%20supplement.pdf

Hodder, K.H., Bullock, J.M., Buckland, P.C. & Kirby, K.J. 2005. Large herbivores in the wildwood and modern naturalistic grazing systems. English Nature (Research Report 648). http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/R648

Kirby, K J 2004 A model of a natural wooded landscape in Britain driven by large-herbivore activity. Forestry, 77, 405-420. http://forestry.oxfordjournals.org/content/77/5/405.abstract

Rewilding – creating a bold new wilderness, as above at Oostvaardersplassen in the Netherlands, or a series of headaches for the regulators?

 

BOOKS

Mitchell, P L & Kirby, K J  (1989)  Ecological effects of forestry practices in long-established woodland and their implications for nature conservation. Occasional Paper 39, Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford. 182pp

Kirby, K J  (1992)  Woodland and wildlife.  Whittet Books, London, 132pp.

Kirby K J & Watkins, C (editors) (1998) The ecological history of European forests.  CABI, Wallingford.

Savill, P S S, Perrins, C, Kirby, K J & Fisher, N  (2010)  Wytham Woods, Oxford’s Ecological Laboratory.  Oxford University Press, Oxford.

 

REFEREED JOURNAL PAPERS

Kirby, K J  (1980)  Experiments on the vegetative reproduction in bramble (Rubus vestitus).  Journal of Ecology 68 513-520.

Kirby, K J  (1984)  A comparison of two methods for classifying British broadleaved woodland.  Field Studies 6, 103-116.

Kirby, K J  (1984)  Scottish birchwoods and their conservation.  Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh 44, 205-218.

Kirby, K J, Bines, T, Burn, A, Mackintosh, J, Pitkin, P & Smith, I  (1986) Seasonal and observer differences in vascular plant records from British woodlands.  Journal of Ecology 74, 123-131.

Kirby, K J  (1988)  Changes in the ground flora under plantations on ancient woodland sites.  Forestry 61, 317-338.

Webster, S D & Kirby, K J  (1988)  A comparison of the structure and composition of an ancient and an adjacent recent wood in Essex.  The London Naturalist 67, 33-45.

Kirby, K J  (1990)  Changes in the ground flora of a broadleaved wood within a clear fell, group fells and a coppiced block.  Forestry 63, 241-249.

Mitchell, F J G & Kirby, K J  (1990)  The impact of large herbivores on the conservation of semi-natural woods in the British uplands.  Forestry, 63, 333-354.

Kirby, K J, Webster, S D & Antczak, A  (1991)  Effects of forest management on stand structure and the quantity of fallen dead wood: some British and Polish examples.  Forest ecology and management, 43, 167-174.

Spencer, J W & Kirby, K J  (1992)  An inventory of ancient woodland for England and Wales.  Biological Conservation, 62, 77-93.

Roberts, A J, Russell, C, Walker, G J & Kirby, K J (1992)  Regional variation in the origin, extent and composition of Scottish woodland.  Botanical Journal of Scotland, 46, 167-189.

Kirby, K J  (1993)  Assessing nature conservation values in British woodland - a review of recent practice.  Arboricultural Journal 17, 253-276.

Cooke, R J & Kirby, K J  (1994)  The use of a new woodland classification in surveys for nature conservation purposes in England and Wales.  Arboricultural Journal 18, 167-186.

Kirby, K J, Mitchell, F J & Hester, A J  (1994)  A role for large herbivores (deer and domestic stock) in nature conservation management in British semi-natural woods.  Arboricultural Journal 18, 381-399.

Kirby, K J, Thomas, R C, Key, R S, McLean, I F G, & Hodgetts, N  (1995).  Pasture woodland and its conservation in Britain.  Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 56 (suppl.) 135-153.

Mitchell, F J G, Hester, A J & Kirby K J (1996)  Effects of season and intensity of sheep grazing on a British upland woodland: browsing damage to planted saplings.  Botanical Journal of Scotland 48, 199-207.

Hester, A J, Mitchell, F J G  & Kirby K J (1996)  Effects of season and intensity of sheep grazing on tree regeneration in a British upland woodland.  Forest Ecology and Management 88, 99-106.

Kirby, K J, Thomas, R C & Dawkins, H C (1996).  Monitoring of changes in tree and shrub layers in Wytham Woods (Oxfordshire), 1974-1991.  Forestry 69, 319-334.

Thomas, R C, Kirby, K J & Reid, C M (1997) The conservation of a fragmented ecosystem within a cultural landscape - the case of ancient woodland in England.  Biological Conservation 82, 243-252.

Petrokofsky, G, Brown, N.D, Hemery, G.E, Woodward, S, Wilson, E, Weatherall, A, Stokes, V, Smithers, R.J, Sangster, M, Russell, K, Pullin, A.S, Price, C, Morecroft, M, Malins, M, Lawrence, A, Kirby, K.J, Godbold, D, Charman, E, Boshier, D, Bosbeer, S, Arnold, J.E.M. (2010) A participatory process for identifying and prioritizing policy-relevant research questions in natural resource management: A case study from the UK forestry sector Forestry. 83 (4): pp 357-367.
doi:10.1093/forestry/cpq018.

Crampton, A.B, Stutter, O, Kirby, K.J, Welch, R.C. (1998) Changes in the composition of Monks Wood national nature reserve (Cambridgeshire, UK) 1964-1996 Arboricultural Journal. 22 (3): pp 229-245

Kirby, K.J, Thomas, R.C, Dawkins, H.C. (1996) Monitoring of changes in tree and shrub layers in Wytham Woods (Oxfordshire), 1974-1991 Forestry. 69 (4): pp 318-334